Chad Ross: Naked Germany. Health, Race and the Nation. Berg, Oxford / New York 2005, 239 p.
(Fig. 18), ₤ 16.99.
Maren Möhring marble bodies. Body formation in the German naturism (1890-1930). (Cologne
Historical treatises 42). Böhlau, Köln / Weimar / Vienna 2004, p. 463 (Fig. 19), 49,90 €.
Bernd Wedemeyer-Kolwe: "The New Man". Physical Culture in the Empire and the Weimar
Republic. King & Neumann, Würzburg 2004th 519 p., € 68.00.
In the 1920s, the German nudism appeared as a mass movement. What hitherto somewhat
marginal nudist lodge education within the Reform Movement of 1900 was
was increased, resulting from strong associations with members who are mostly in the socialist or
spectrum of social reform were, but also often apolitical middle-class and increasingly
commercially, were ethnically oriented in individual cases. In 1933, the culture of nudity came about in
a contradictory relationship with the Nazi state.
It took half a century, until the nudism in the 1980s
detailed historiographical attention was.
1
This research was under the impression
the new green-alternative movements - like the emergence of a new radical left
had been in the 1970s, the impetus for the study of workers' sports movement.
2
Twenty years later, now intensified research into the culture of nudity again
But this time the questions have shifted in a characteristic manner, and also to provide
new methodological questions: What do you want to know from nudism, and how we analyze it?
Nation and health - History of Ideas
A more traditional way is the American study by Chad Ross, as the dissertation
the Department of History at the University of Missouri emerged. It combines intellectual history with
local club's history, the nudist movement in the Empire and the Weimar
To illuminate the Republic.
Most likely to bring the first new chapter, where due to local membership lists
the 1930-40s, an attempt is made to the demographic reality of naturism
to determine in more detail. The nudist club operated its activity mainly as
Family membership, and they were recruited from a wide range of medium
Middle and working class. The nudist clubs came into conflict with authorities and
Churches and were the subject of moral and political campaigns against the
'Immorality' - which is the second chapter. The following five chapters follow the
naked thematize cultural literature and the first critical and distanced relationship between the
Naked culture to mainstream medicine (3), then the nudist health beliefs about skin, sun
and air (4), based on ancient Greek notions of physical beauty
(5), the tendencies of nudist women's emancipation (6) and finally the ratio of
Naked culture on sexuality and race breeding (7). The epilogue takes a look at the Nazi era and
the presence of nude depoliticized culture. As the ambitious title suggests, is the
Subject of something more general about Germany as a nation state.
1
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From all this results in a multifaceted and nuanced picture. Sectarian,
nationalist and right-wing, Marxist, social-, non-political and commercial
Trends overlapped. What is assumed as the movement together was the
Idea of building the ideological superstructure. The ideology of naturism acted as a powerful magnet ...
(P.59). However, this is a problematic assumption. Entices you to analyze too closely
of self-presentation lead to the nudist literature along. Sparta was the model ... Already
the ancient Teutons, with their sun-worship ... Even Goethe said ... (And is quoted in
Richard tempest). In the culture of nudity seems the lost sense of wholeness
Nudists believed ... again ... It is difficult for the analysis, above the level of mediocre
Nudist-authors raise. But the Greek statue poses regarding the brown skin
no gain in knowledge from, and the naked Spartans contributes nothing to understanding the times
naked, sometimes uniformed Nazis in Nationalist.
Critical results from the fact that one of the nudist literature, particularly from
their ethnic self-interpretations, by understanding it reproduces, the
social significance of naturism derive just can not. What is needed is one of
physical practice-oriented method. The text analysis requires an outlying
Breakpoint, a reference to social practice. This could be the body motion, because
Naturism in large part from gymnastics, swimming and sports was. Or it could be the
His machine on which the - discussed below - Investigation of Maren Möhring
creates. It would be interesting in the relation to individualization, the importance of Ross
variously suggests.
But just at the individualization problem demonstrates the inadequacy of the
intellectual-historical method. The nudists designed, as it initially is, the culture of nudity to
benefit the individual first and the second people (p.1). In the context of the chapter on
Sexuality and race will conclude the opposite: The 'care of the self' in nudism existed
only to better the race ... not to complete the cultivation of the self (153). A few pages later sounds
it is different: While the goal of nudism was the total transformation of the national Deutsch,
social and racial body into a nudist utopia, the agent of that change, and the focus of effort nudist,
what the individual body (158). And compared with the Green Party of today, it means that the
Lebensreformer political reform abwiesen: Nudist reform of the nation and the people what
Above all personnel reform (165). Thus would the historic step of the life of the reform
Interwar period to the green movement of the seventies, rather than a de-individualization of
, namely to understand as a shift from individual to reform political ecology.
That could indeed make an interesting thesis, but it requires a considerable theoretical
stricter access. The inconsistency of Ross' interpretations shows that without a
methodology elaborated in such a central issue no further.
Apart from making the claim that nude culture with specific developments in
Germany - Germany, people and nation - to relate, comparative efforts
necessary. They are used in this study, but not even made a sketch.
Some suggestions have more to parallel developments in other European countries
down. But for example, no reference to the importance that the Dane and JP Müller
Bess had American Mensendieck for nudists. Concluding comments of the kind,
nudism and that the idea of the naked body continue to be important in Deutsch society to this day,
as anyone who visits Germany today invariably notices, and any reference to naked or
half-naked sunbathers in the Englischer Garten of Munich (168) do not meet there.
Statue and machine - discourse analysis
One way out of the historical dilemma of ideas seeks Maren Mohring's dissertation at the
University of Munich. But it does not primarily the naked cultural practice itself,
2
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but their discourses. This is done in connection with Foucault, Judith, gender research
Butlers and the German so-called discourse analysis.
The analysis proceeds in three steps. At the next practice is the first part of the
Nude Gymnastics and its systems of spatial-temporal pattern represents. The discourses recorded
certain panels of the body, ie, their order in place. They put it on rhythm and
Increase capacity on, in order of time. And they put the individual in relation to
Groups and gender.
The second part shows how the 'nice' body based on the Greek statue
was staged. The aesthetic discourse of the nudist culture practiced in the ancient mimesis and
led by the Greek 'role model' in which racial ideology.
In the third part of the body appears as a machine. This stands in contradiction
the nudist self-image, which is polemically against the industrial machine world
presented. But the medical and hygienic discourse of naturism is really about something
such as the human engine and its thermodynamics, of dietetics, cleaning and light, of the
Skin care as work on the physical body boundary. The physiology of leading science
but also revealed new religious sites - and they experienced a worsening of the biopolitical
'Naked mate selection'.
All this is richly documented, especially from the writings of Heinrich Pudor,
Richard and Hans Surén storm, the three main authors of the ethnic culture of nudity, as well as from
Gymnastics books of the Danes, JP Müller and the American Bess Mensendieck. This occurred
A number of important observations forth.
The socio-historical location of naturism was the big city, and her supporters was
typically North German and Protestant. This raises Möhring in the literature
otherwise widespread assumption into question, the culture of nudity is - as the reform of life in general -
fundamentally 'anti-modern' was. Speaks with a look at the current fitness movement
Author of a more 'avant garde'.
The naked body was in fact working on the cultural normalization. It was about
through exposure and practice the 'natural', ie the normalized as beautiful and healthy
Body (re) create. He should stand out from the 'ugly' and 'unhealthy'
Body normalcy of the dominant society. In detail required by the individual
Training and performance improvement, moderation and thrift, combat fatigue,
Removal of excess fat and decor. The 'naked truth' of the Neue Sachlichkeit -
this keyword is missing in Mohring's analysis, but they would emphasize good - acquiesced in the
Context of capitalist economics and Taylorisation body.
It remains unclear in the study, however, that the basic pattern of
economic rationality on the naked body was. Because the body can completely Economy
Mean different things. Economy on the one hand the body can increase its productive force;
Normalization here refers to the industrial productivist as for example in sports
expressed, the movement to implement it in the production of ever-increasing
Records. Economy but can also tend body (nude) are expressed gymnastic; here
normalization is more repetition, on a balance of good husbandry and the
Promote circulation targets. Would be a reaction to the stress of capitalist production
it a kind of reproduction. Or was there perhaps something in addition to production and reproduction, third,
and the nudists had even features an anti-normalization? After all, it put the naked
under the prevailing conditions Wilhelmine corseting, civil
Body armor and body training not on compliance, but to a political body
Conflict at.
Revealing is the ratio of the metaphors 'machine' and 'statue', the
Möhring from the cultural discourses of the naked body filters out. Naturism was working on
Body armor - although one misses here the involvement of the socialist psychoanalysis
3
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by Wilhelm Reich.
3
Nudist related to demarcation, delimitation and penetration, they
had overtones of other mechanical militarization on the one hand and erotic desire.
Together was the 'mechanical' and 'statuesque' staging of nudity one
Rejuvenation rhetoric aimed at a 'deathless life'. Naked people in the cultural picture united
the Machine with the broken statue in the individualization of modern homo clausus.
(This confirms the above-mentioned thesis of individualization Ross.) Oddly, however, that
Mohring's book titled 'marble bodies' on the statue stands alone, while the machine aspect
but socially and historically significant would be.
Revealing complex and also are the chapters on the
Sex ratio. Within the culture of nudity were found, as Möhring shows, one-and sex-
two-sex models side by side. But both were always geared to the male model.
The homoerotic undertones of naturism is touched by Mohring, but it would have earned
to be treated more detail.
Altogether, the thesis presents a rich material, the nuanced wisdom
and is related to important cross-cutting issues. But it is also evident here, how much to
the method depends. While trying Möhring, the suspicious and smart-alecky
To avoid criticism of ideology, but the 'discourse analysis' it is a leg. The German
Although discourse analysis controls, Foucault misunderstanding, some overused terms like
'Pränormalismus', 'flexible' and 'Protonormalismus' at, but it does not promote the
Insights.
The investigation is not the end of naturism as a social
Practice, but from the discursive talk. The study thus remains in the ideological superstructure and hang
not so much away from the old ideology. The materialistic, more significant
'Engine' is omitted in the title, and remains the intellectual history 'statue'.
In addition, the study is ultimately not of the reformist discourse in
its plural and contradictory, but half of sub-cultural, semi-sectarian
Part of discourse that appears falsely as a whole. The Nationalist 'selection' is here
overproportioned to the socialist body liberation, as in nude Culture School
Adolf Koch was expressed. As Ross' study Mohring's discourse analysis is therefore a
Sensitive left field trials in Germany and beyond.
Physical Culture and secular religion - a breakout attempt
To ideas and breaking out the confines of intellectual history discourse fixation
seeks the habilitation of Bernd Wedemeyer-Kolwe involved in the
Social Sciences at the University of Goettingen has emerged. It seeks, by
Folklore and history of her sport, a way across the broader concept of physical culture.
The body's cultural practices were organized since the late 19 Century
two blocks, turn the system on the one hand and the other sports. (In response was the
Turn-workers and a differentiated sports movement.) Beyond that block formation of one often has a
third area overlooked in the organizational fragmentation of an independent
'Movement' represented the lebensreformerische body culture movement - and the nudist culture was
part of it. Wedemeyer-Kolwes investigation has been so meritorious, because for
this context, the eyes open. Especially as in other depictions of the life reform
cultural aspect of the body in its specificity sometimes be lost in ideology and art
threatened.
4
Also related to the approach that life is reform in relation to the
modernization of society (whatever that is) to interpret. Until now, we
mostly inclined to see the life reform movement as a regressive phenomenon, and held
it is a critique of ideology to its literary self-representations: social criticism,
Metropolitan criticism, spirituality, tradition, and new religious folk character. It came, however, in
4
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Conflict with a more class-historical approach. This was taken seriously, that
the reform of life primarily by the new middle class of employees, civil servants and the self-
was worn, the intellectual, academic, technical, industrial and artistic professions
. exercised If one idea on the basis of this historical profile yet further class
process, requiring the larger interpretive effort. It was then in the
Life reform 'progressive' values to discover how the modern progress, performance, discipline,
Asceticism, secularization, and individualism. Mohring's discourse analysis is a variant of this
second mode of interpretation.
Wedemeyer-Kolwe takes the starting point of both approaches a step
Distance. He is rather because the inner conflict potential of its subject matter explicitly
to make than the usual rationalization, civilizing or modernization theories
apply. Global theories, which he feels is rightfully considered rigid, the author of one
cultural-historical method as opposed to the suggestions from the folklore and more
micro-historical historical anthropology takes. Such a cultural history of the targeted
Attention to differentiation, nuances and heterogeneity of the observed
Phenomena. In this sense, the author examines the organizations and leaders,
Clientele and economics, theories and practices of lebensreformerischen currents. The
favors a source close and thematically broad approach - whether it, however, the sketched
theoretical dilemma resolves remains questionable.
An outline of the major work shows that the author of a theory containing
Choice is not around. He chooses "world views" and their "sense" as
Classification criterion and thus comes to four main blocks of the representation. First, the
Gymnastics movement, which followed the principle of "rhythm". Then, the yoga movement
(Including Mazdaznan, New Thought and rune gymnastics), the author under the heading
"Reincarnation" is. Third, the nudist movement under the principle of "light and air".
And finally, bodybuilding and fitness movement, "the power and beauty of" striving. It is
therefore, a kind of secular religion.
The presentation of the four fields in the individual demonstrates that such a classification as
presentation of practical handle is fertile. With a wealth of archival and printed
Sources will trace the development of the club, association and school education.
For the first time creates a coherent picture of the body's cultural trends, the system builder
and their networks. Particular attention is the investigation on the numbers of
Followers and practitioners, their composition by class and gender, and the economy
the institutions and the funding of their courses. Overlap between the criss-cross
different fields show that there is indeed a coherent phenomenon
act that deserves the term a 'movement'. For future studies in this field so
creating a land register.
German exceptionalism or international wave?
The impressive work material, however, has its limitations. This is reflected in the
international dimension of life reform. It lacks a targeted analysis, although approaches
quite visible.
Only weakly in the international rhythmic gymnastics is pronounced, the
more of a 'German inwardness' staged. However, the author points to the
American School Development of Delsarte, Mackaye, Stebbins and Mensendieck and on the
important role the sisters Elizabeth and Isadora Duncan down. The German dance guru Rudolf
posted by Laban after his emigration in 1938 in England, its main long-term effect.
Despite such remarks - and the major currents of gymnastics in Denmark,
Sweden, Finland and Estonia are not included - is the comparative study
rhythm of a desideratum.
5
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The international context of the yoga movement is, however, as the
Study shows obvious. One of her main points was the American Theosophy
Hinduism and reception of the late 19th Century. By 1900 the French developed
Pharmacist Emil Coué a suggestion practice that became known as Couéismus. The German-
'Aryan' Mazdaznanbewegung expanded in 1908 to the U.S. and other countries. After
Founded in 1917 George Ivanovitch Gurdieff (which the author does not mention) a Russian-
French and international network of 'magic' of yoga and Sufipraktiken. Also in the frame
the American New Thought or Neugeistbewegung and - very different - the Eranos
Meetings of the thirties went the national influences and forth across the borders.
Again rather than 'German' appears in comparison to the nudist movement.
The author mentions, however, the international organization, which since the twenties
Years unfolded. The Nordic and Russian sauna culture is not in the presentation
included. And American references - from Mensendieck and Duncan to Josephine
Baker (which is not mentioned) - could also have a broader view of the phenomenon
. show
From the ground up internationally and in particular American is the image contrast
In the fourth movement of patients treated with a name as a motion-fitness, bodybuilding or
Physical Culture is already marked the Anglo-American horizon.
5
The author draws
the international integration of this market carefully for physical culture. This not only illuminates
economic market, but also substantive aspects of cultural body strength. One encounters
Combustion engines and their technology development, sports competitions like the
Bodybuilding and the individualism of American self-made man. As the Danish
Power gymnast JP Müller 1904 put it: "Everyone has his own fortune" (p. 379).
The synopsis of the international comparative study of the culture as a whole body
However, for the time being is still pending. Another unresolved issue is the positioning of the phenomena described
between the political right and the left.
The right and left reform
Are also in-Kolwe Wedemeyer, like Möhring and Ross, the left and socialist
Trends in physical education toward their nationalist-racist and American-
market related aspects underexposed.
6
While treated, the Essene School of Gymnastics
Dore Jacobs, the influence of the socialist youth Resolute, the Resolute
School reformers and the community college movement and the Jewish youth movement, Blue-White
to grasp the culture and Zionism are Martin Buber. Is also observed that education
Nacktkulturisten socialist Adolf Koch, with its connections to the "Confederation of Free
People ", the Association of Public Health and to the workers and the Olympics
Sexual reformers to Magnus Hirschfeld and Max Hodann. And the Workers' Sports Club in Spruce
Berlin had its own nudist section. But only in passing in a footnote to the significant
Pacifist and socialist reformer Hans Paasche called life, although his letters from a fictitious
African to become a classic of cultural criticism and radical reform were living (in 1920
Paasche was the German Freikorps victim to fascism).
7
The body's culturally oriented
psychoanalytic practice of the Communist Wilhelm Reich remains unmentioned. The influential
Martin Buber's cultural criticism is hardly touched. Theodor Lessing, whose critique of culture in his time
was to focus probably unsurpassed by any other
8
(And shot in 1933 by Nazis
was), is not mentioned. And the ratio of workers to the rhythmic Sports
Gymnastics in 'proletarian body culture', as she shaded the socialist
Sexual theorist Helmut Wagner has expressed, we learn nothing.
9
Compared with such
Neglect on the left, it looks unbalanced, when the Nationalist
Acting on closer inspection there are two marginal eccentrics - Rune gymnasts -
be considered with an entire chapter.
6
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Also in this field remains important still open. Perhaps in the lead
Future studies on regional history and the studies of Styria, for example,
seem the 'German Reich' researchers to be unknown.
10
And in international comparison
It promised profits, the existing approaches on the 'right' and the 'left' body
process and to examine critically.
11
The imbalance in the research literature has to do with the paradox that the
Naked culture movement to large, perhaps even most parts
12
was left oriented, while
their vociferous right ideologues often articulated. And the brown body of the
Everyday culture represents a third level.
The findings of the ad hoc method of cultural history that is not enough. But
also the author's overall interpretation of religion-related remains questionable, as the four 'principles' -
Rhythm, reincarnation, light and air, power and beauty - not a theory containing samples
result. Body part they call practical, but sometimes they take off into the world of pure
Concepts (reincarnation). Is a resignation to the global theories still
no reason. Perhaps it continues, if the physical practice as the starting point
reconstruction of empirical and theoretical interpretation takes.
Material practice of thinking and conflict
Given the shortcomings of ideas, discourse and religious history trials would
So a more appropriate materialistic approach, the physical movement of the practice
the organized and discursive superstructure leads. In more consistent continuation of the
Wedemeyer-Kolwe criticism of methods outlined here would be very different levels of
Note: bodily practice and conflict, historical change and international comparison.
Assuming the organized nudist movement in the first place 'from below', there
they appear in the context of everyday practice of body movement, clothing and nudity
between Empire and Weimar.
13
When she accompanied a subcultural movement
epoch-making process in which - among others - the white skin as a feature of social status
was replaced by the tanned skin.
On this basis then one would have thought more dialectical contradictions of this
Practice to detect them. This would in tensions between the culture of nudity
different habitus visible, especially between a 'tight', military or
gymnastic disciplined habitus on the one hand and a more relaxed, 'green' or
'Youth Movement' habitus on the other.
About the habitus conflicts one gets to complex social contradictions.
Here, the nationalist-educated middle class and subcultural normalization 'marble bodies'. There, a
socialist or democratic body self-empowerment: 'free people'. And the third one
new hegemonic social practice: 'Fit for the functioning' of the 'human engine'. The
is not to sort the life-world phenomena in boxes. The 'free man' can
certainly in the Greek statue recognize that Fitnessfunktionalismus can 'liberating',
affect both the socialist and 'free man' and the bourgeois 'marble body' can
the human motor work. But it is important to think of contradictions. The three patterns can not
be reduced to one another, without that one does to the social complexity of violence.
In particular, it is problematic, for sheer racial nationalist thinkers and
Runengymnastikern left the life reform and cultural criticism can be neglected. The
innovative reform impulses of life showed even now about the civil behavior of their time
beyond. And as in the Weimar period, the socialist unions for "public health"
slowly turned bourgeois, it was the Nacktkulturisten, the most radical
class struggle struck a tone.
14
7
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Waves of modernity and inter-cultural comparison
As for the historic change, so the nudist part of a process of
Discontinuities.
15
It linked to the upheaval of the modern 'seat time' on, to the new
clinical view and the first 'green wave' in 1800. In this respect represented the Reform Movement
of 1900 a second wave. And by the well-toned, lean and tanned
Body produced, they pointed ahead to the current fitness and natural movement (and the
pornographic market), so in a way third wave. The history of discontinuous waves
in the everyday culture of industrial society, it is also true in the future to be taken seriously.
The development of the white skin to tan as a status badge combines the
twenties to the present. Below this there were mainstream since the 1960/70er
Years of cultural traits in naked subculture Ellen, about the American hippie culture in which
Russian alternative scene
16
and in the Danish alternative youth culture of the 1970s with
Thy-bearing and Roskilde Festival
17
. Also the 'third wave' was, although in a different way
than after 1900, accompanied by sectarian phenomena, in the municipality of Berlin I
18
up to
Otto Muehl commune AAO. And again it was beyond subculture and a tendency sect
hygienic normalization - the health care market and the prevailing health policy.
Again, it was said with reference to the 'individual responsibility for one's body', if every
his own fortune.
The socio-historical analysis must still ensure adequate methods
. develop Regarding the current fitness center is sure to hit, how far the
Discourse of the operator, the real motivations of the participants and the practice of the Institute
can diverge. History of ideas is not enough.
Health is certainly not just an object of knowledge and medical hygiene
public-governmental public health policy but a matter of self-organization in the
Civil society. Social movements in the body's cultural sector to build new markets.
19
Culture is so naked on the dynamics of tension between market, state and
Civil society.
Inter-cultural comparison can continue here. All three discussed here
Studies can thus be read as if it were in a German nudists
Exceptionalism. Of systematic comparison is lacking, however. Danish and American
Suggestions play for the German nudists yes no small role. But it would be far more
to say. In Schweden kombinierte der sogenannte Frisksport zur gleichen Zeit Nacktkultur,
Lebensreform und Bodybuilding.
20
Körperentblößung als Teil gesundheitspädagogischer Praxis
spielte eine Rolle in den – ebenfalls zeitgleichen – Gymnastikpraxissen von Niels Bukh in
Dänemark
21
und Georges Hébert in Frankreich
22
. Auch Hygienebewegungen, in denen sich
Medizinreform mit Körperkultur verband, insbesondere mit Wasserkultur und Freiluftgymnastik,
sind aus anderen Ländern bekannt.
23
Der dänische Arzt Niels R. Finsen, der für seine Forschungen
zur Lichtbestrahlung 1903 den Nobelpreis erhielt, gab mit seiner 'Lichttherapie' der
nacktkulturellen Praxis und 'Sonnenanbetung' eine wissenschaftliche Reputation von erheblicher
Wirkung. Andererseits gibt es aus Nordeuropa in der Tat Belege dafür, daß die deutsche
Nacktkultur noch in den 1920er Jahren als ungewöhnlich, provozierend oder faszinierend
empfunden wurde.
24
Hier ist zukünftige komparative Forschung herausgefordert.
Mit ihrer ideengeschichtlichen und ideologiekritischen Voreingenommenheit verbaut
sich die deutsche Forschung oft ihre Möglichkeiten. Erst komparative Anstrengungen würden die
gängigen nationalkulturellen Deutungen, zum Beispiel hinsichtlich eines deutschen Sonderwegs,
überhaupt ermöglichen. Der hier besprochene Anstoß aus volkskundlicher Richtung ist insofern
vielversprechend, auch wenn man sich mehr Mut zur Theorie wünschen würde. Ansonsten leben
wir mit einem Paradox: Solange historische Forschung dem internationalen Vergleich ausweicht,
wiederholt sie genau diejenige nationale Verengung, von der sie als Nazismuskritik eigentlich
Abstand nehmen will.
8
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Gerlev/Dänemark
Henning Eichberg
1
Giselher Spitzer: Der deutsche Naturismus. Idee und Entwicklung einer volkserzieherischen Bewegung im Schnittfeld
von Lebensreform, Sport und Politik . Czwalina, Ahrensburg 1983. (Diss. Bonn 1982).
2
Henning Eichberg: “Alternative Verhaltensnormen im Arbeitersport? Ein Literaturbericht.“ In: Sportwissenschaft , 5
(1975) 69-80.
3
Wilhelm Reich: Charakteranalyse . 1933. Neuaufl. Frankfurt/Main: Fischer 1973.
4
Neuere Sammeldarstellungen: Diethart Kerbs, & Jürgen Reulecke (Hrsg.): Handbuch der deutschen
Reformbewegungen 1880-1933 . Peter Hammer, Wuppertal 1998. – Klaus Wolbert (Hrsg.): Die Lebensreform. Entwürfe
zur Neugestaltung von Leben und Kunst um 1900 . Band 1-2, Häusser/Anabas, Darmstadt 2001.
5
Zu deren Historiographie gibt es seit 1990 die Fachzeitschrift Iron Game History, The Journal of Physical Culture , die
an der University of Texas in Austin erscheint.
6
Reinhard Preuss: Verlorene Söhne des Bürgertums. Linke Strömungen in der deutschen Jugendbewegung 1913-1919 .
Wissenschaft und Politik, Köln 1991. (Diss. Marburg 1984). – Franz Walter, Viola Deneke & Cornelia Regin:
Sozialistische Gesundheits- und Lebensreformverbände . Dietz, Bonn 1991.
7
Hans Paasche: Die Forschungsreise des Afrikaners Lukanga Mukara ins Innerste Deutschlands . (Zuerst 1912/13).
Neudruck Grüner Zweig, Osnabrück, oJ (1970er Jahre). – Siehe auch Hans Paasche: "Ändert Euren Sinn!" Schriften
eines Revolutionärs . Donat, Bremen 1992.
8
Theodor Lessing: Die verfluchte Kultur. Gedanken über den Gegensatz von Leben und Geist . 1921. Neuaufl. Matthes
& Seitz, München 1981.
9
Helmut Wagner: Sport und Arbeitersport . 1931. Neudruck Pahl-Rugenstein, Köln 1973, 148-161.
10
Reinhard Farkas: Grüne Wurzeln. Ökologische und spirituelle Reform in der Steiermark . Podmenik, Fohnsdorf 1992.
11
John Hoberman: Sport and Political Ideology . University of Texas Press, Austin: 1984. Kritisch dazu Henning
Eichberg in: Stadion , 10 (1984) 253-59.
12
Nach Spitzer 1983 (Anm. 1): 7 und 139-150, auch Walter ua 1991 (Anm.): 89.
13
Zur anthropologischen Dimension siehe Hans Peter Duerr: Nacktheit und Scham . (= Der Mythos vom
Zivilisationsprozeß. 1) Suhrkamp, Frankfurt/M. 1988. – Zur historischen Veränderung der Körperhaltung ist die ältere
Studie von Karl Gaulhofer weiterhin unübertroffen: Die Fußhaltung. Ein Beitrag zur Stilgeschichte der menschlichen
Bewegung . Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft für körperliche Erziehung, Kassel 1930. Nachdruck Niederlande 1969. -
Einen systematischen Vergleich der Bekleidungsmuster von Wandervogel und Studentenbewegung versuchte die
volkskundliche Dissertation von Marion Grob: Das Kleidungsverhalten jugendlicher Protestgruppen in Deutschland im
20th Century. Am Beispiel des Wandervogels und der Studentenbewegung . Coppenrath, Münster 1985.
14
Walter ua 1991 (Anm. 6): 53-38, 49-52, 61-67, 84.
15
Über die 'grünen Wellen' in der Geschichte des dänischen Natursports: Henning Eichberg & Ejgil Jespersen: De
grønne bølger. Træk af natur- og friluftslivets historie . Bavnebanke, Gerlev 1986. Neuaufl. DGI, Vejle 2001. -
Kurzfassung bei Henning Eichberg: “Zielgeraden und krumme Linien. Zur Sozialräumlichkeit des Sports am dänischen
Beispiel.“ In: Stadion , 10 (1984) 227-245. – Auch derselbe: “Disziplinierungsanstalten und grüne Wellen. Zur
Sozialökologie der Berliner Sportstätten.“ In: Wolfgang Dressen (Hrsg.): Selbstbeherrschte Körper . Berlin,
Museumspädagogischer Dienst/Ästhetik und Kommunikation 1986, 27-47.
16
Über die Wasserkultur um Igor Tscharkowskij siehe Erik Sidenbladh: Vattenbarn . Akademilitteratur, Stockholm
1982. – Auf dänisch: Vandbørn. Om Igor Tjarkovskij og hans vej til at føde og leve i vort urelement . Borgen,
Kopenhagen 1983.
17
Erik Jensen: På Roskilde . Politiken, København 2003.
18
Wolfgang Dressen, Dieter Kunzelmann & Eckhard Siepmann: Nilpferd des höllischen Urwalds – Spuren in eine
unbekannte Stadt. Situationisten. Gruppe SPUR, Kommune I. Anabas, Gießen 1991.
19
Knut Dietrich & Klaus Heinemann (Hrsg.): Der nicht-sportliche Sport . Hofmann, Schorndorf 1989. – Knut Dietrich,
Klaus Heinemann & Manfred Schubert: Kommerzielle Sportanbieter. Eine empirische Studie zu Nachfrage, Angebot
und Beschäftigungschancen im privaten Sportmarkt . Hofmann, Schorndorf 1990.
20
Kjell E. Johanson & Harry Lindgren: Frisksportens historia. Svenska Frisksportförbundet 50 år . Carlsson, Stockholm
1985. – Helena Tolvhed: ”'Stål i musklerna och stål i viljan' – svensk frisksport under trettio- och fyrtiotalen.” In:
Idrott, historia & samhälle , Stockholm, 2004: 24-41.
21
Hans Bonde: Niels Bukh. En politisk-ideologisk biografi . Museum Tusculanum, Kopenhagen, Bd.1-2, 2001.
(Habilitationsschrift).– Derselbe: The Battle of Youth: Niels Bukh and the Creation of Modern Gymnastics (1880-1950) .
Museum Tusculanum, Kopenhagen 2003.
22
Zu dessen Kontext siehe Jacques Defrance: L'excellence corporelle. La formation des activités physiques et sportives
modernes, 1770-1914 . Presses Universitaires, Rennes 1987.
9
Page 10
23
Zu Gesundheitsbewegung und Naturheilkunde in Dänemark: Signe Mellemgaard: “Views of the body in medicine.
The case of water cures in the bacteriological era.” In: Mette Bryld et al. (red.): Bodyscapes. Body and Discourse .
Odense University Press, Odense 1995, 121-137. – Dieselbe: Kroppens natur. Sundhedsoplysning og naturidealer i 250
år . Museum Tusculanum, København 1998 (Diss.). – Zur Hygieneorientierung in der Schulgymnastik Norwegens: Pål
Augestad: Skolering af kroppen. Om kunnskap og makt i kroppsøvningsfaget . Høgskolen i Telemark, Bø 2003. (Diss.
Oslo).
24
Aufsehen erregte die Darstellung deutscher Nacktkultur in Finnland, trotz dort vorhandener Saunakultur, durch Olavi
Paavolainen: Nykyaikaa etsimässä (Auf der Suche nach der modernen Zeit – finnisch). 1929. Nachdruck in: Valitut
teokset (Ausgewählte Werke), Bd.1. Otava, Helsinki 1961. – Dazu gibt es Fotomaterial aus den zwanziger Jahren, das
im Rahmen des Paavolainen-Projekts gesammelte ist bei Tapio Onnela: Modernin unelma. Kuvia ja tunnelmia 1920-
luvulta . Otava, Helsinki 1990. – In Dänemark wurden noch 1931 deutsche Nacktbader am Strand bei Kopenhagen als
Sensation empfunden: Henri T. Meyer: „Nøgen-kultur i historisk Belysning.“ In: Verden og Vi , 21: 23 (1931) 5-7
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