Life Reform

Life reform is the generic term for several since the mid- 19th Century, especially from Germany and Switzerland outgoing reform movements , their criticism of the common features of industrialization or materialism and urbanization , coupled with a search for the natural state were. An overarching organization possessed the various movements are not, however, there were numerous associations. Whether the reform movements of the reform of life rather than modern or as anti-modern and reactionary are classified, is controversial in the literature, both theories are represented. [1]
Contents
[Verbergen]

1 General
2 Individual reform movements
2.1 Nature Medicine
Dress reform 2.2
2.3 nudism
2.4 Nutrition Reform
2.5 rural communes
3 Known Lebensreformer
4 Literature
5 External links
6 External links

[ edit ] General

The individual movements emerged in reaction to developments in Modernism , which they saw not as progress, but as signs of decay. Essential for their formation was the fear that modern society with the individual to "civilization damages" and diseases of civilization , lead by a return to "natural life" could be prevented and cured. "Man in his man-made emergency, however, should not be healed in the banal sense. The reform of life was his salvation, his redemption. (...) The world view of life includes reform at its core a secular Gnostic - eschatological . doctrine of salvation " [2]

Representatives of the life reform advocated a more natural lifestyle, organic farming , vegetarianism , dress reform , naturopathy , etc. and were reacting to the negative consequences from their point of view of social change in 19th Century. Spiritually, turned to life reform to new religious and spiritual beliefs, including Theosophy , Mazdaznan and yoga .

Her expression was the structural reform of life, first settlement in experiments such as the Monte Verita and afterwards in the garden city movement , such as the settlement Hellerau and many others, whose most famous representatives of the architect Heinrich Tessenow (1876-1950) was. The first was founded in Germany in 1893 the Fruit Growers Cooperative Eden at Oranienburg .

The reform was largely a life of bourgeois-dominated movement, which was attended by many women. In physical education it was to give under the impact of industrialization and urbanization of the human to compensate for a lot of fresh air and sunshine.

Some areas of the life reform movement, such as naturopathy or vegetarianism, were organized into associations and learned stimulate supply, which is reflected in the membership. [3] to distribute their content and principles they gave magazines like The naturopath or the vegetarian Wait out.

Reform were part of life beyond the naturism (nudism, naturism well) and the gymnastic movement . There are also close contacts with the land reform movement ( Adolf Damaschke , etc.), the Free Economy movement Silvio Gesell , for early youth movement and other social reform movements.
[ edit ] Individual reform movements
[ edit ] Naturopathy

The basic idea of ​​natural medicine movement in the 19th Century are from Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who has his educational novel Émile or on Education in 1762 ushered in with the sentence: "Everything that comes out of the hands of the Creator is, well, everything degenerates in the hands of man." He urged a return to nature, according to lifestyle, postulated an endogenous "natural force" by the Resilience should be promoted, and refused medication.

As the first representative of the natural health movement are Prießnitz Vincent and Johann Schroth , both farmers and medical professionals. They sat at the bears their treatments only on natural remedies such as water, heat and air, and soon became known as "quacks", where they treated the same disease sometimes completely contradictory. An essential feature of the emerging natural medicine was the belief that the body dispose of self-healing powers, would be the only inspired and supported. This view went on Paracelsus back. The most famous healers of the 19th Century was Sebastian Kneipp . In German-speaking countries were so-called natural remedies established institutions. 1891, 131 of them organized in the Association of Naturopathic Associations. [4]

Central views of natural medicine called Meyers Lexikon end of the 19th Century: "The disease process they viewed as a healing process through which the vital act interfering substances under the sign of fever, inflammation of the fermentation and decay, ie by decomposition processes are rendered harmless. In this way, the natural medicine come so far, for example, measles , smallpox , scarlet fever to declare the nature of a certain age used in cleaning processes, the danger to life was first created by the fallible human race, and by the pharmaceutical medicine itself. " [5]

In 1883, the German Association of Natural Medicine and understandable for people's health care was founded. In 1900 he changed its name to the German Confederation of Associations for contemporary natural living and healing way. 1889 were in this umbrella organization with 142 local branches organized some 19,000 members, already in 1913 there were 885 clubs with 148,000 members. The association had a publishing house that published the journal Nature doctor.

The older method of alternative medicine homeopathy experienced a strong increase from 1870, which led to the founding of many homeopathic amateur clubs in Germany.

In the 1920s, naturopathy lost a total of popularity, the zenith of this movement was exceeded. An exception was only founded in 1897, Kneipp-Bund , in the 1960s had about 65,000 members. [4]

After 1933 the "German Life Reform Movement" brought into line and went into the Reich Association of Associations for contemporary natural living and healing ways of the Nazi party on. "The Nazis hoped that through the instrumentalization of life reform and natural contemporary medicine, the efficiency of the German people, its to increase racial 'health and physical robustness." [6] The Nazi Party, the inclusion of natural healing methods advocated in the general medicine under the term New German Medicine (NDH). The plans failed because of opposition from the medical profession but in the end. [4]
[ Edit ] dress reform
→ Main article: Reform clothes

In the context of life-reform movements there were in the second half of the 19th Century in Germany, several approaches to a reform of clothing, with the first considerations in relation to the men's clothing. Heated discussions were on the question of what material is particularly conducive to health. Gustav Jäger wool exclusively considered suitable, while Heinrich Lahmann advocated cotton and linen, especially Sebastian Kneipp. Hunter started his own clothing company for which he designed clothes for so-called normal men, which was quite successful for several decades on the market, not only in the German-speaking countries, but also in England. He started his own club and published a monthly magazine. [7]

Among the reform initiatives of women's clothes were mainly for the abolition of the corset , not only of the suffragettes was demanded, but also by some physicians strongly. The physician Samuel Thomas Sömmering in 1788 had written an essay titled "On the harm of Schnürbrüste". In the following decades, accumulated public speculation, the strong constriction leads to deformation of internal organs, especially the injury to the uterus, favoring constipation and can lead to a Schnürleber. Shortness of breath and were actually detected a tendency to fainting and a severely limited mobility. [7]

In the U.S., called Amelia Bloomer as one of the first women in 1850 a reform dress and wore it for some time. The American Reform movement failed. 1881 in England, the Rational Dress Society was founded in 1896 in Germany was followed by the General Association for the improvement of women's clothing with first 180 members. In 1900, renowned artist known artist designed the corset dresses, among other things, Henry van de Velde . These models were not intended for mass production. 1903, the Free Association for improvement of women's clothing, which was renamed in 1912 in German Association for women's clothing and women's culture. After 1910, the abandoned haute couture on the corset, without the women's fashion was thus convenient. It was not until the fuel shortage and a changing image of women at the time of the First World War ensured a strong change in women's clothing in the sense of the reformers. [7]
[ edit ] Naturism

→ main article: Naturism

Also, the nudist movement arose as a part of life-reform movements. The Swiss Arnold Rikli founded in 1853 a "sun sanatorium" and ordered his patients' light baths "without any clothing. In 1906 there were 105 in Germany so-called air baths.

As the real pioneer of nudism, namely non-hygienic, medical treatments, however, is the painter and cultural reformer Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach (1851-1913), who with his students in the hermitage Höllriegelskreuth and later on the Himmelhof practiced in Vienna. Through him and against him came in 1888 for the first nudist process of history. Diefenbach worked as successor to Henry Pudor , Guntram Erich Pohl, Richard storm and Hugo Höppener- Fidus .

1891 Henry Pudor published a pamphlet titled Naked people. Rejoicing of the future where it nakedness praised as an antidote to the alleged degeneration of the people as a result of civilization. "Pudor combination of health advice, clothing reform, vegetarianism, anti-modernism and anti-Semitism found in the following years numerous imitators." [8] Even the nudist activist Richard tempest represented nationalist and anti-Semitic ideas. He founded in 1910 the lodge for rising life and appealed for "strict physical discipline" and "naked husband ', with the goal of healthy and to testify" racially pure "descendants. [8] Quote: If "see any German woman, often a naked Germanic man so not so many exotic alien races would go after. For the sake of healthy selection I therefore call on the nudist culture, so strong and healthy mate to come but not weaklings to reproduce. " [9]

Free from pornography and sexuality distanced themselves the leaders of the free body culture decided. "Until the '20s there was a broad movement into the nudist culture directed much more strongly to discipline, body control, self-control, (...) values, which were quite compatible with the Nazi ideology," the . historian Hans Bergemann [9] The civil nudist representatives criticized, although heavy, the general prudishness, representing but not themselves liberal views, but defined the term "immorality" in order for them the clothed man was immoral Hans Bergemann:.. "You have Simply put: it's the clothes that would be the sexualized body and the sultry first creates desire, and the opposite would have to undress themselves naked, then reduce sexual desire or you could control it better. " [9] Thus, it is be "And finally, be mentioned at this point that the modern bathing suit, this indecent clothing that makes you think, because it draws attention to violence in this certain place and with fingers pointing at them (...: in a nudist publication ) " [9] .

The supporters of the nudist movement, however, belonged to different ideological directions, even if the known journalist folkish-national. Funded by the nudist culture was walking bird movement, so that the sports association.

The gym teacher Adolf Koch was politically the camp of socialism and of social reform goals pursued within the working class. He also tried to sex education , physical strength and health advice. Koch founded the so-called "school body", who in the 1920s, far more supporters than the middle nudist groups. [10] in 1932 there were about 100,000 German Reich organized nudists, including about 70,000 in the body schools.

The conservative nudist groups founded in 1923 the Association of German frets light fighter, which was called from 1926 National Association for Free Body Culture (RFH). The groups formed the Socialist League for Socialist way of life and naturism. In March 1933 a decree to combat the "naked culture movement" was published. After the RFH to the Nazi state was known, was followed by the DC circuit and the renaming in the combat ring for ethnic nudism. [10]
[ edit ] Nutrition Reform

Another part of the reform of life was the food reform, which was closely related to ideas of natural medicine. The modern vegetarianism in Germany as a special variant of this movement can be viewed. The reformers rejected the changes in dietary habits in the 19 Century from which were related to the modernization of the food industry, falling prices for some products like sugar and white flour as well as the introduction of canned food and first finished products such as meat extract and bouillon cubes . The leaders of dietary reforms were physicians who considered the modern "civilized diet" as the main cause of many diseases. Just as natural foods are really healthy, so their argument. There was no unified theory of nutrition, together was the nutritional concepts of the reformers, however, the widespread absence of meat, the preference for raw vegetables and whole grains , and the rejection of stimulants such as tobacco, coffee, alcohol, but strong and of sugar and spices . [11]

The views of nutrition reformers were in contradiction to the theories of nutrition science in the late 19th Century, the animal protein is regarded as a major energy supplier to the human diet. The importance of vitamins was unknown.

Theodor Hahn wrote 1857/58 his book The natural diet and a little later, the Practical Handbook of nature-friendly way of healing, in which he whole-grain products, milk, raw vegetables and raw fruits than optimal foods labeled. Gustav Schlickeysen described the man as a fruit-eater and refused both cooked as also entirely from animal food. This theory now follow the Frutarian . Is known Maximilian Oskar Bircher-Benner , who not only cereal invented, but developed its own nutrition, the sun light food. The idea of diet reform were taken up mainly in health clinics and distributed. [11] A series of nutrition lessons today known as " alternative diets are designated "has its origin in that movement.

On the work of reformers also took nutrition Werner Kollath back, who published his 1942 masterpiece The order of our food. In it he described the "diet of civilization" as an inferior "half-diet", while unprocessed products "full value" were. His diet concept he called whole foods .

Vegetarianism became an independent movement that is also organized by clubs. An important representative was Gustav Struve , whose book vegetable diet. The foundation of a new philosophy appeared in 1869. The Rev. Edward Baltzer had 1867 in Nordhausen, founded the first association for contemporary natural living, who devoted himself especially in the aftermath of the diet. 1892 was the German Vegetarian Union, based in Leipzig. In 1912 there were 25 German vegetarian societies around 5000 members. [12]

In Germany and Austria is still active in the food trade reform houses date back to the Reform Movement.
[ edit ] rural communes

As a result of industrialization and urbanization occurred mainly within the educated middle class to a "romantic anti-urban agriculture" [13] and a real escape into the country under the slogan "back to nature". Some were satisfied with the system of allotments and moved into newly created garden cities , others founded by like-minded communities in the country with the aim to produce needed food largely self. The Marxist author Ulrich lens writes: "It was an anti-urban revolt urban, progressive-oriented intelligence, it was land and Agrarutopismus cult writers of the big city" [13] . Lens refers to this flow as a form of escapism . Within the municipalities were created in 1900, the reform ideas of the dominant life on healthy lifestyles and nutrition, also played alongside the idea of cooperatives and ideas for land reform a role.

He divided the country on the prevalent local belief in social reform, nationalist, anarcho-religious and evangelical. As a nationalist, for example, the settlement home country to be considered in Northern Brandenburg, but soon went down again. As an anarcho-social reform and religious settlement of the Monte Verita in Ascona. An example of a women's settlement was the black earths project near Darmstadt, the more likely the women's movement is attributed as the reform of life. The temporary popularity of the settlement idea leads lens primarily on political and economic crises of the German Empire in 1900 and fell again after the First World War.

Model for many rural communities, the vegetarian Eden Fruit settlement , which was founded in 1893 by 18 supporters of the reform of life near Oranienburg. The settlement area was called into homes and divided into leasehold initially assigned exclusively to vegetarians. For financial reasons, but from 1901 also included non-vegetarians and changed the name of profit in fruit growing settlement. The animal slaughter and sale of meat remained within Eden prohibited. Each home-serviced for themselves, and there were cooperative orchards as a source of income. 1894 Eden had 92 members, 22 homes were leased in 1895 it was 45th After a sharp decline in membership in 1900, the number again. 1930 there were 230 settlement houses and about 850 inhabitants. [13] [14] The products were to reform houses sold and naturopathic institutions. 1933, have long been ethnically oriented [15] Eden of the National Socialists brought into line , but still existed. Even in the GDR under the Eden brand continues to produce. The cooperative still exists and is active in various business areas.

A special form of the rural communes were the artists' colonies, for example, the Worpswede by Paula Modersohn-Becker or Höllriegelskreuth and Vienna by Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach . Particularly well known is the Monte Verita in Ascona in Switzerland, founded in 1900 as a sanatorium lebensreformerisches because many artists were staying here for some time.
[ edit ] Known Lebensreformer

Friedrich Eduard Bilz
Maximilian Bircher-Benner
William Bölsche
Otto Buchinger
Karl Buschhüter
Carl Buttenstedt
Adolf Damaschke
Karl Wilhelm Diefenbach
Fidus (Hugo Höppener)
Dückelmann Anna Fischer , author of Woman as Family Doctor
Gustav grasses
Gustav Jäger
Sebastian Kneipp
Heinrich Lahmann
Robert Laurer
Gustav Lilienthal
Arnold Rikli
Paul Schirrmeister
Karl Schmidt-Hellerau
Moritz Schreber
John Ude
Bruno Wille
Hans Paasche

[ edit ] References

Uwe Heyll: water, fasting, air and light. The history of natural medicine in Germany. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2006, ISBN 3-593-37955-4 .
Florentine Fritzen "Healthier Life." The Reform Movement in the 20th Century. Steiner, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-515-08790-7
Judith Baumgartner and Bernd Wedemeyer-Kolwe : risers, side paths, byways. Searching movements and subcultures in the 20th Century. Festschrift for Ulrich lens . Königshausen and Neumann, Würzburg 2004, ISBN 3-8260-2883-X
Bernd Wedemeyer-Kolwe: "The New Man". Physical Culture in the Empire and the Weimar Republic. Königshausen and Neumann, Würzburg 2004, ISBN 3-8260-2772-8
Renate Foitzik Kirchgraber: Life and reform groups of artists in 1900. Dissertation Basel 2003rd Online: Life Reform and groups of artists in 1900 .
The reform of life. Proposals for the redesign of life and art around 1900. Edited by Kai Buchholz, Rita Latocha, Hilke Peckmann and Klaus Wolbert. Catalogue of the exhibition at the Institute Mathildenhöhe. Darmstadt 2001, ISBN 3-89552-081-0 .
Diethart curbs / Jürgen Reulecke: Handbook of German reform movements from 1880 to 1933. Hammer, Wuppertal, Germany 1998, ISBN 3-87294-787-7 .
Ulrich Lens: The "natural" life. The reform of life. In: Richard van Dulmen (Eds.): The invention of man. Creation dreams and images of the body from 1500 to 2000. Böhlau, Vienna 1998, ISBN 3-205-98873-6 , p. 435-456.
Eva Barlösius: Nature-friendly lifestyle. On the history of life around the turn of the century reform. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1997, ISBN 3-593-35759-3 .
Cornelia Regin: Self-help and health policy. The natural healing movement in the Empire (1889 to 1914). Steiner, Stuttgart 1995, ISBN 3-515-06432-X .
Wolfgang R. Krabbe: "The ideology of the German Reform Movement's National Socialism." In order to fit an alternative flow in the Third Reich. In: Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 71 (1989), p. 431-461.
Claus Bernet: Life Reform in Upper Franconia. Hans classes and the municipality of New Sonnenfeld. In: Yearbook of Franconia geography 67 (2007), p. 241-354.
Corona Hepp: avant-garde. Modern art, cultural criticism and reform movements that followed the turn of the century. German history, the latest period of 19 Century to the present. Munich 1987, ISBN 3-423-04514-0 .
Wolfgang R. Krabbe: social change through reform of life. Structural features of a social reform movement in Germany during the industrialization period. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1974, ISBN 3-525-31813-8 .
Ulrich lens: Barefoot Prophet. Saviour of the Twenties. Siedler, Berlin 1983, ISBN 3-88680-088-1 .
Lens Ulrich (ed.): Back, O Man, to Mother Earth. Rural communes in Germany 1890-1933. DTV, München 1983, ISBN 3-423-02934-X .

[ edit ] External links

Lebensreform database , database of newspaper and magazine articles and articles in books and in conference proceedings
Life Reform in Switzerland , online project

[ edit ] References

↑ Henning Eichberg: nudist culture, life reform, physical culture - New research literature and methodological issues (pdf)
↑ Wolfgang R. Krabbe: reform of life / self-reform. In: Diethart curbs , Reulecke Jürgen (ed.): Handbook of German reform movements, 1880-1933, p. 74
↑ See: Eva Barlösius: Nature-friendly lifestyle
↑ a b c Wolfgang R. Krabbe: natural health movement. In: Kerbs / Reulecke, p. 77 ff
↑ articles naturopathy. In: Meyers Lexikon, circa 1895
↑ crab, natural healing movement, p. 82
↑ a b c Karen Ellwanger, Elisabeth Meyer-Renschhausen: dress reform. In: Kerbs / Reulecke, p. 87 ff
↑ a b Rolf Koerber: nudism. In: Kerbs / Reulecke, p. 105
↑ a b c d Arna Bird: If the shells fall - History of nudism
↑ a b Koerber, nudism, p. 103 ff
↑ a b Judith Baumgartner diet reform. In: Kerbs / Reulecke, p. 15 ff
↑ Judith Baumgartner vegetarianism. In: Kerbs / Reulecke, p. 127 ff
↑ a b c Ulrich lens: Rural municipalities in Germany, 1890-1933 (excerpt)
↑ Werner Onken: Model experiments with social obligation land and money (pdf)
↑ George L. Mosse : The Nationalist Revolution. About the intellectual roots of National Socialism. Hain, Frankfurt am Main 1991, ISBN 3-445-04765-0 , p. 123f.